History
New York City, officially called the City of New York, is the most heavily populated city, thus making it the largest city and metropolitan area in the United States. The City is considered as the most vital global center for finance, politics, communications, entertainment, music, fashion and culture worldwide. New York City is also considered as one of the world’s four global cities together with London, Tokyo and Paris, and is host to a number of unparalleled and world-renowned museums, galleries, performance venues, media outlets, international corporations and financial markets. The city is the seat of the United Nations and home to all the international dignitaries that represent their respective countries in the UN.

Situated in the state of New York, New York City is inhabited by about 8.2 million residents within about 320 square miles (approximately 830 square kilometers) of land. The population includes immigrants from more than 180 countries which help make the county the most cosmopolitan cities in the world. Out of the 468.9 square miles territory, 159.88 square miles is water and 321 square miles is land. New York City lies at the heart of the New York Metropolitan Area, which with a population of about 22 million is one of the largest urban areas in the world. The City’s culture, energy, cosmopolitanism and economic opportunities lure a number of immigrants not only from over 180 countries but also from all over the United States to try make it big in the ‘Big Apple’. The city is also currently distinguished for having the lowest crime rate among major American cities with 14% drop in crime rate from 2001 to 2004 as compared with the national decline of 1.5% thus making New York City the safest city in the United States. Functioning as an engine for global economy, New York City is also home to more Fortune 500 companies than anywhere else in the country. The city earned an estimated gross metropolitan product of US$488 billion in 2003 which was the largest of any city in the entire country and the sixth largest compared to any US State. If considered as a nation, New York City would rank 16 th highest gross domestic product in the world.

New York City proper comprises five boroughs: Brooklyn, the Bronx, Manhattan, Queens, and Staten Island — each of which could be a major city in its own right. All except Staten Island contain over a million people and independently can be counted among the largest cities in the United States.

New York City had been inhabited by the Lenape people, including such tribes as the Manahattoes, Canarsies and Raritan before the arrival of European settlers and its discovery by European Giovanni da Verrazzano. The Lenape in canoes met Giovanni da Verrazzano considered as the first European explorer to enter New York Harbor in 1524. With the 1609 voyage of Henry Hudson, European settlement began with the establishment of the fortified Dutch fur trading settlement of New Amsterdam and New Netherland colony on the southern tip of Manhattan in 1626. In that same year, Peter Minuit established a long tradition of shrewd real estate investing with his purchase of Manhattan Island and Staten Island from Algonquin tribesmen in exchange for trade goods (legend, now long disproved, has it that the island was purchased for $24 worth of glass beads). Minuit's settlement also became a haven for Huguenots seeking religious freedom. The colony was granted self-government in 1652 under Peter Stuyvesant, but the territory was conquered by the British in 1664 without struggle and the Dutch that formally ceded it to the English in the Treaty of Breda at the end of the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1667. The city was renamed "New York" after the English city of York, after James, Duke of York,. In August 1673, the Dutch briefly regained control again over the territory, renaming the city "New Orange", but ceded it permanently in November 1674. New York City continued to flourish under British rule, and while there was growing clamor for greater political independence, the territory was decidedly split in its loyalties during a series of major early battles during the American Revolutionary War which was known as the New York Campaign. At the onset of the American Revolutionary War, New York was heavily damaged and burnt during the Battle of Brooklyn and was under British occupation until the end of the war. The city was the last port the British ships evacuated in November 25, 1783. This date commemorated annually thereafter as "Evacuation Day," marks the day George Washington returned to the city and the last British forces left the United States. Washington was inaugurated on April 30, 1789 as the first President of the United States at Federal Hall on Wall Street. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Continental Congress met there and New York City remained the capital of the US until 1790.

During the 19th century, the city underwent transformation through immigration, a visionary development proposal called the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 that expanded the city street grid to cover all of Manhattan, and the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 that connected the Atlantic port to the big agricultural markets of Mid-western United States and Canada in 1819. By 1835, New York City overtook Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States. Local politics became dominated by a Democratic Party political machine known as Tammany Hall which was supported by Irish immigrants.

During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the strong commercial ties of the city's to the South, its increasing immigrant population, and anger about enlistment triggered a divided sympathy for both the Union and Confederacy that ended in the Draft Riots of 1863 known to be the worst civil unrest in American history. The New York Draft Riots were suppressed by the Union Army. The rate of immigration from Europe grew sharply when the Civil War ended and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new and better life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty in 1886. In the years that followed the city’s upper classes enjoyed greater prosperity along with the growing number of poor immigrant working class which was associated with economic and municipal consolidation of what will emerge as the five boroughs in 1898.

New York County, in two separate actions in 1874 and 1895, annexed parts of southern Westchester County known as the Bronx. In 1898 New York City acquired the political form in which it exists to this day. Manhattan and the Bronx, though still one county, were established as two separate boroughs. These two boroughs were then joined together with three other boroughs created from parts of adjacent counties to form the new municipal government originally called "Greater New York". The Borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge, and several municipalities in eastern Kings County, New York; the Borough of Queens was created from western Queens County (with the remnant established as Nassau County in 1899); and The Borough of Staten Island contained all of Richmond County. All municipal (county, town and city) governments contained within the boroughs were abolished. In 1914, the New York State Legislature created Bronx county, making five counties coterminous with the five boroughs.

During the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication. Interborough Rapid Transit (the first subway company) became operational in 1904, and the railroads operating out of Grand Central Terminal grew which aided in binding together the newly consolidated city. Social upheaval resulted from the height of European immigration and the anticapitalist labor union was violently repressed. In the 1920’s there was a heavy influx of African-Americans due to the Great Migration from the American South. The Harlem Renaissance flourished during this time. New York became the most populated city in 1925 displacing London from that spot it held for a century. During the Great Depression the city suffered and the election of reformist mayor Fiorello LaGuardia ended Tammany Hall’s political dominance for eight years. The Brooklyn Navy yard and other port facilities and the city’s industries played a vital role during world war II.

After World War II New York emerged as the unquestioned leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading America's emergence as the world's dominant economic power. The economic and residential boom was associated with veterans returning from war and also the immigration from Europe. Huge tracts of new housing were constructed in eastern Queens. The United Nations relocated from its first headquarters in Flushing Meadows Park Queens to the East Side of Manhattan in 1951. As what happened to other US cities, New York suffered decline of its population, an eroded industrial base, and racial-influenced riots in the 1960s. By the 1970s, the city had gained a reputation for being a crime-ridden relic of history. In 1975, the city government had to restructure its debt through the Municipal Assistance Corporation headed by Felix Rohatyn as it was on the brink of financial collapse. The Financial Control Board strictly scrutinized the city finances of New York State.

The 1980 Wall Street was reborn and New York City once again reclaimed its role as the center of the world-wide financial industry. The crime rates dropped dramatically in the 1990 and the outflow of population turned around as the city once again became the destination not only of immigrants from around the world, but also of many U.S. citizens seeking to improve their life and live a cosmopolitan lifestyle. In the late 1990s, the success of the financial services industry during the dot com boom benefited excessively the New York county, which was one of the factors in a decade of booming residential and commercial real estate value increases.

New York City was the site of the worst terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 where nearly 3,000 people were killed by the terrorist strike on the World Trade Center buildings which included New Yorkers employed in the buildings and hundreds of firemen, policemen, and rescue workers who came to their aid after the attack. Thick, acrid smoke continued to pour out of its ruins for months after the aftermath ofthe Twin Towers' fiery collapse and destruction. New York city's economy was affected substantially but has since rebounded and the physical cleanup of Ground Zero was completed ahead of schedule. Intended to be the world's tallest skyscraper after its scheduled completion in 2009, The Freedom Tower is to be built on the site.

In the next ten years, the New York city expects a wave of public and private-sector building projects to restructure large portions of the county and a boom in residential construction resulted from permits being issued for over 25,000 new residential units annualy.

Geography
New York City has the following waterways:

1. Hudson River
2. East River
3. Long Island Sound
4. Newark Bay
5. Upper New York Bay
6. Lower New York Bay
7. Jamaica Bay
8. Atlantic Ocean

New York City is situated at the center of the BosWash megalopolis, 218 miles (350 km) driving distance from Boston and 232 miles (373 km) from Washington, D.C.. It is located on the three major islands of Manhattan, Staten Island, and western Long Island. The Bronx is the only borough that is part of the mainland United States. The city's total area is 468.9 square miles (1,214.4 km²), of which 35.31% is water.

The superb natural harbor formed by Upper New York Bay, which is surrounded by Manhattan, Brooklyn, Staten Island, and the coast of New Jersey is the primary factor that defines New York City's significance as a trading city. It is sheltered from the Atlantic Ocean by the Narrows between Brooklyn and Staten Island in Lower New York Bay.

The Hudson River flows from the Hudson Valley into New York Bay which becomes a tidal estuary that separates the Bronx and Manhattan from New Jersey. The East River, actually a tidal strait, stretches from the Long Island Sound to New York Bay, separating the Bronx and Manhattan from Long Island. The Harlem River which is another tidal strait between the East and Hudson Rivers separates Manhattan from the Bronx.

Human intervention has considerably changed the face of the city's land, with substantial land reclamation done along the waterfronts since Dutch colonial times. Reclamation is most notable in Lower Manhattan with modern developments like Battery Park City. Most of the natural variations in topography have been evened out, particularly in Manhattan. One possible meaning for "Manhattan" is "island of hills"; in fact, the island was quite hilly before European settlement.

Climate
New York is blessed with a humid continental climate, although by being adjacent to water it experiences less temperature fluctuation than inland areas. Typically it is cold during Winters in New York, but milder than inland Eastern and Midwestern cities at similar latitude such as Cleveland, Detroit and Pittsburgh. Temperatures below 0 °F (-18 °C) usually occur once every decade on the average, but daytime low temperatures in the 10s and 20s °F (-12 to -2 °C) are common at the height of winter. Springs are typically mild, with high temperatures averaging in the 50s °F (10 to 15 °C) in late March to the lower 80s °F (25 to 30 °C) in early June. New York has hot and humid summers, with temperatures commonly exceeding 90 °F (32 °C), though high temperatures above 100 °F (38 °C) are somewhat rare. Autumns are comfortable with sunshine and average temperatures in the 50s °F (10 to 15 °C).

New York City is prone to huge winter storms called nor'easters because of its location along the Atlantic Ocean. These storms bring wind, rain, coastal flooding, and huge snowfalls in the heart of winter. Most of New York's biggest snowfalls are a result of these. Each winter, New York City experiences about one or two major snowfalls, usually averaging between 8 and 12 inches per storm. The Blizzard of 2006 on February 11-12, 2006 was an all-time record snowfall in New York's Central Park where an average 26.9 inches of snow fell in Manhattan. These storms are rare and hit about once in a decade. On the average, the city receives about 30 inches of snow each winter.

New York City can also be prone to tropical cyclones due to its location on the east coast, although they are rare and usually much less strong than ones that normally hit further south in Florida, North Carolina or along the US Gulf Coast. If they do hit, Hurricanes and tropical storms usually happen in late summer and early fall.

Enviornmental Issues
The unique population density of New York makes possible the highest rate of mass transit use in the United States. As a result, New York is one of the most energy efficient cities in the United States. Gas consumption in the city is in the level of the national average rate in the 1920s. Since the 1990s the city has been a national leader in municipal environmental policy. The city government is required to purchase only the most energy efficient cars, air-conditioners and copier machines. New York boast of the largest hybrid bus fleet in the country, and some of the first hybrid taxis.

New York City is also a leader in energy-efficient green office building. An example is the Hearst Tower and 7 World Trade Center which recycles rainwater and uses it in toilets and for irrigation, and also uses computer-controlled heating and lighting.

Unlike the cities of Los Angeles or Beijing where air pollution are severe, air pollution in New York City remains a problem. The air in New York City has high levels of ozone and particulates and residents in some neighborhoods have very high rates of asthma. Some areas of the city are also potentially at risk if the current global warming patterns continue and sea levels rise.

A vast watershed in the Catskill Mountains is the source of New York's water supply. Since the watershed is in one of the largest protected wilderness areas in the United States, the natural water filtration process remains intact. This makes New York as one of the few cities in the country with drinking water pure enough not to require processing by water treatment plants. Only chlorination is necessary to ensure the water’s purity at the tap.

Boroughs and Neighborhoods
New York City is comprised of The Five Boroughs. There are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods in the city throughout the boroughs, many with a definable history and character all their own.

• Brooklyn (Kings County, pop. 2,472,523) - the most populous borough with a strong native identity. It also boast of a long beachfront and Coney Island, famous as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country. It ranges from a modern business district downtown to large historic residential neighborhoods in the central and south-eastern areas.
• Manhattan (New York County, pop. 1,564,798) - the business center of the city and the most superlatively urban. It is the most densely populated and the home of most of the city's skyscrapers.

• Queens (Queens County, pop. 2,225,486) - the most diverse county in the U.S. with more immigrants than anywhere else in the nation. Geographically the largest borough, it is home to Shea Stadium and the New York Mets; two of the region's three major airports; Flushing Meadows Corona Park, site of the 1939 and 1964 World Fairs; and Arthur Ashe Stadium, host of the annual U.S. Open.

• Staten Island (Richmond County, pop. 459,737) - quiet and the most suburban in character among the five boroughs, but has gradually become more integrated with the rest of the city since the opening of the Verrazano Narrows Bridge in 1964, an event that caused controversy and even an attempt at secession.
• The Bronx (Bronx County, pop. 1,363,198) - known as the purported birthplace of hip hop culture as well as the home of the New York Yankees. Excluding its minor islands, the Bronx is the only borough of the city that is on the mainland of the United States.

Government
New York City since its consolidation in 1898, has been a metropolitan municipality with a "strong" mayor-council form of government. Both the mayor and councilors are elected by the residents to four-year terms. There are 51 Council members, whose districts are defined by geographic population boundaries ,that constitute the unicameral body called the City Council of New York. Each councilor represents approximately 157,000 people. The mayor and councilors are subject to eight year term limits. The most recent election was held in 2005. New York City Hall, seat of city government since 1812.

Democratic mayoral candidates have historically been elected by the city residents. The current and previous mayors, however, are pro-choice, liberal Republicans considerably to the left of their national counterparts. Councilors are usually well-known and are elected under specific issues. Labor politics are important. The most controversial topics are housing and economic development, with an ongoing debate over the proposed Brooklyn Nets Arena.

Majority of public offices are held by the Democratic Party. The Party platforms are centered on affordable housing, education and economic development. The city's political demographics are liberal and Democratic where 87% of registered voters in the city are Democrats which is directly in contrast to New York State, which is somewhat less liberal.

There is a strong imbalance in the city’s payments with the national and state governments. New York City receives 83 cents in services for every $1 it sends to Washington in taxes (or annually sends $11.4 billion more to Washington than it receives back). Similarly, the city also sends an additional $11 billion more each year to the state of New York than it receives

Since Democrats are consistently voted in national elections by both New York state and New York City, many observers argue that the city is insignificant in presidential contests. New York City, however, remains as the most important source of political fundraising in the United States. The top zip code 10021 on the Upper East Side generated the most money for the 2000 presidential campaigns of both George W. Bush and Al Gore. Four of the top five zip codes in the nation for political contributions are in Manhattan.

Economy
The New York Stock Exchange is located at the corner of Broad Street and Wall Street in the Financial District. New York City is a main center for business and commerce in the United States and is one of the three world cities (along with London and Tokyo) that control world finance. The financial, insurance, and real estate industries form the basis of its economy. The city is the most vital center for mass media, journalism and publishing in the United States and is also the finest arts center in the country. New York's film industry is the nation’s largest after Hollywood. Some important sectors also include Medical research, technology, and fashion.

New York City's stock exchanges are considered among the most important institution in the world. The New York Stock Exchange is the largest stock exchange worldwide by dollar volume, while NASDAQ is the world's largest by number of listings. The city is home to many international corporations office including more Fortune 500 companies than anywhere else. For the large number of foreign corporations in its territory New York is unique among American cities. One out of every ten private sector jobs in the city is with a foreign company. This often makes the perspective of New York’s business community internationalist and at odds with Washington’s foreign policy, trade policy, and visa policy.

Garments, chemicals, metal products, processed foods, and furniture are some of the principal manufacturers that are specialized manufacturing accounts for a large but declining share of employment. New York’s fine natural harbor is very well suited for international shipping which has always been a major part of the city’s economy. In recent decades however, most cargo shipping has moved from the Brooklyn waterfront across the harbor to the Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal in New Jersey while some cargo shipping remains. Brooklyn handles the majority of cocoa bean imports to the United States.

There is also a growing share of employment from the “Creative” industries, like design, new media, and architecture. The increasing commercial role of New York City’s many medical laboratories and research centers, science and research is another potential strong growth sector. Jobs in the sector went up 4.9% in 2004 - 2005. Also exhibiting signs of growth are the High-tech industries like software development, gaming design, and Internet services. New York is the leading international internet gateway in the United States with 430 Gbps of international internet capacity terminates, because of its position at the terminus of the transatlantic fiber optic trunkline. By comparison, the number two U.S. hub, Washington/Baltimore, has 158 Gbps of internet terminates

The estimated gross metropolitan product of New York City is nearly $500 billion. Product was estimated at $489 billion in 2003, up from $470 billion in 2002. This figure is limited only to activity within the city limits. Including the Long Island and Newark suburbs puts the 2003 GMP at over $710 billion, larger than the GDP of Switzerland ($377 billion) and nearly equaling that of Russia ($582 billion). As a nation, the city's economy would rank as the 17th largest in the world, and at $59,000 per person, New York would have the second highest per capita GDP after Luxembourg. New York is home to more Fortune 500 companies than any other place in the United States.

Demographics

Based on the census of 2004, there are 8,168,338 people (up from 7.3 million in 1990), 3,021,588 households, and 1,852,233 families residing in the city. This figure constitute to about 40% of New York state's population and a similar percentage of the New York City metropolitan population.

Recently, a large numbers of foreign immigrants had been arriving in New York City, many long-standing residents are leaving, and there was an increase in the gap between the rich and the poor, and a rising trend in the black middle class. Rapid growth in some areas of the city is fueled by immigrants and their children. Some areas are undergoing racial and ethnic transition; others are gentrifying.

Its density and diversity are the two most notable demographic features of the city. By American standards, the city has an extremely high population density of 26,402.9/mi², about 10,000 more people per square mile than the next densest city, San Francisco. Manhattan's population density is 66,940.1/mi². New York is also uniquely diverse. 36% of its population is foreign born, a larger percentage than in any other major city in the United States except Los Angeles. Whereas in that city the vast majority is from a single country, Mexico, in New York no single country of origin dominates. Only the four largest, the Dominican Republic, China, Jamaica, and Russia represent groups larger than five percent. The city is about 45% white, 27% black, 27% Hispanic, and 10% Asian.

In New York the median that a family earns is $44,131 in 2003. The unemployment rate in March of 2005 was 5.2%, identical to the nationwide rate. The median age is 34, a year younger than the figure nationally. Nearly 30% of New York City households have children under 18.

Residents of New Yorker belong to a diverse range of ethnic groups. 11.5% are African-American, 9.8% Puerto Rican, 8.7% Italian, 5.3% Irish, 5.1% Dominican, 4.5% Chinese, 2.1% Asian Indian, 1.8% Filipino and 1.6% Korean . Some of these minority populations have become the predominant influence over particular sections of Manhattan, including Chinatown, Harlem, Little Italy, and Spanish Harlem. Not to be outdone, the Irish have also had a notable presence in the city, and according to a 2006 genetic survey by Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland, about one in 50 New Yorkers of European origin carry a distinctive genetic signature on their Y chromosomes inherited from Niall of the Nine Hostages, an Irish high king of the fifth century A.D. Moreover, New York City is home to the nation's largest community of American Jews, both Ashkenazic and Sephardic, with an estimate of just under 1 million in 2002. The city is the worldwide headquarters of the Hasidic Lubavitch movement and the Bobover and Satmar branches of Hasidism.

Culture
The people of New York City share a unique culture that is rooted in centuries of immigration and city life. There is substantial diversity in this local culture, varying by ethnic group, social class, and neighborhood.

New York, with its large immigrant population, is more a typically cosmopolitan, global city than something specifically "American". To others, the city's very openness to newcomers makes it a typical city in a "nation of immigrants". Only Los Angeles among other American cities receives more immigrants, but immigration to New York is far more diverse with the city government maintaining translators in 180 languages. The term "melting pot" was first coined to describe Manhattan’s densely populated Lower East Side.

Everyday life for New Yorkers is relatively comparable to that of urban Western Europeans. The “car culture” that predominates most of the United States resident is displaced by New York’s overwhelming use of public transit. Compact rental apartments and not sprawling suburbs are common living quarters to many residents of New York. The city’s food culture is somewhat complex due to the influenced of its immigrants and vast number of demanding dining patrons. Jewish and Italian immigrants made New York famous for bagels and pizza. More recent arrivals have made falafels and kebabs standbys of contemporary New York street food.

There are many typecast about "The City That Never Sleeps." The American idiom "in a New York minute" means "immediately." The "sophisticated New Yorker" likewise often defines American notions of urbanity.

Transportation
New York City is host to the most complex and extensive transportation network in the United States, with its more than 12,000 iconic yellow cabs, landmark bridges, 112,000 daily bicyclists, vast subway system, the nation's busiest public ferry and bus station, immense airports, pioneering underwater vehicular tunnels, largest shipping port on the East Coast and even an aerial commuter tramway. In contrast with nearly 90 percent of Americans that drive to their jobs, about one in every three users of mass transit in the United States and two-thirds of the nation's rail riders are residents of New York and its suburbs . New Yrk's uniquely high rate of using public transit and coupled with its pedestrian-friendly character makes it one of the most energy efficient cities in the country. Gas consumption in New York is at the rate the national average was in the 1920s

Mass Transit
The New York City Subway is the largest subway system in the world when measured by track mileage (656 miles of mainline track) and the world's fifth largest when measured by annual ridership (1.4 billion passenger trips in 2004). New York's public transit system moves 2.4 billion people each year, and is the largest in North America. New York is home to two of only three 24 hour subway systems in the world. The largest public bus fleet in North America is in New York City's and supplements the subway. A vast commuter rail network, also the largest in North America with well over 250 stations and 20 rail lines serving more than 150 million commuters annually, connects the suburbs in the tri-state region to the city.

Airports
Three major airports serve New York City and its surrounding suburbs: John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) and LaGuardia Airport (LGA), both in Queens, and Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR)

Education and Research
New York is the global center for research and education, particularly in medicine and the life sciences and as such it has the most post-graduate life sciences degrees awarded annually in the United States, 40,000 licensed physicians and 127 Nobel laureates with roots in local institutions. The city receives the second-highest amount of annual funding from the National Institutes of Health among all U.S. cities.

Universities
New York University.

City University of New York (CUNY), with over 400,000 students the third-largest university system in the United States, has been called "the poor man's Harvard" because of its low tuition and record of graduating the highest number of Nobel Laureates of any public university in the world.

Columbia University is an Ivy League university in upper Manhattan. It was established in 1754 as King's College and is the fifth oldest chartered institution of higher education in the United States.

New York University (NYU) is a major research university in lower Manhattan. Founded in 1831 by a group of prominent New Yorkers, NYU has become the largest private, not-for-profit university in the United States. Fordham University, which has campuses in Manhattan and the Bronx, was the first Catholic university in the northeast.

New School, whose graduate faculty was founded by scholars exiled by totalitarian regimes in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s, is known for its progressive intellectual tradition In addition to many more universities, New York City is home to several of the nation's top schools of art and design, including Pratt Institute, the School of Visual Arts, the Fashion Institute of Technology, and Parsons School of Design.

Schools
Stuyvesant High
Hunter College High School
Harvey Milk High School
The Dalton School
The Brearley School
Horace Mann School.

DR. JOHN CHAVES
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